The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked a period of dramatic transformation in East Asia. Japan successfully modernized and emerged as a global power, while China, plagued by internal struggles and foreign encroachments, fractured as a state.
In 1853, Commodore Perry's arrival forced Japan to open its ports to Western trade, ending its isolationist policy. This event exposed Japan's vulnerability to Western military power and prompted internal debate on how to respond. The westerners arrives to suddenly and forcefully that galvanized japan into changing their strategy from their old ways. They had already been aware of the western threat through intelligence agencies hearing about the “unequal treaties” in china. But the arrival of the black ships was the final “embarrassment” that motivated change.
Japan Joins the Ranks of the “Great Powers” While China Fractures
The arrival of Western powers in Japan was a sudden and forceful event that propelled the country into a period of radical transformation. While Japan had some prior knowledge of Western advancements through intelligence agencies and trade relations, the shock of Commodore Matthew Perry’s "Black Ships" in 1853 served as a final wake-up call. The Tokugawa shogunate, recognizing its military inferiority, opted to sign unequal treaties rather than resist. This decision, however, angered young samurai from domains like Satsuma and Choshu, who initiated a civil war.
By 1868, the Meiji Restoration had succeeded in dismantling the shogunate, and the new government, led by figures from Satsuma and Choshu, placed Emperor Meiji at the head of the state. However, instead of reverting to traditional practices, the Meiji leaders embraced modernization and Westernization. They sent the Iwakura Mission (1871-73) to study Western political, military, and economic systems, drawing inspiration from European nations like Germany. Japan quickly adapted its foreign policy to match that of other great powers, even adopting a Realist approach to international law—following it when beneficial and ignoring it when not, as exemplified in its later conflicts with Russia.
The Meiji government embarked on a series of sweeping reforms to strengthen Japan economically and militarily. Education was made universal and modeled after European systems, ensuring a literate and skilled workforce. The government also abolished the samurai class, compensating former nobles and warriors financially and encouraging them to reinvest in industries, transforming them into business elites. This allowed Japan to build a modern, nationalistic army that drew from the entire population rather than a hereditary warrior class.
Economic modernization was a cornerstone of the reforms. Japan established a modern banking system, developed transportation and communication networks, and recruited foreign advisors to accelerate industrialization. Unlike Britain, where industrialization was primarily private-sector driven, Japan followed a state-led model similar to France’s, investing heavily in industries like coal mining, textiles, munitions, and shipbuilding. By directing tax revenue into these sectors, the government was able to rapidly build the infrastructure necessary to compete with Western powers.
With modernization underway, Japan turned its attention to regional security and expansion. The country viewed Korea as the "dagger pointed at the heart of Japan" and feared it falling under foreign control. Japan initially attempted to influence Korean politics through diplomacy and internal allies but faced resistance from traditionalist factions in Korea. China, still operating under the tributary system, intervened on Korea’s behalf, leading to the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). Having spent a decade building a modern military, Japan decisively defeated China, demonstrating its newfound strength.
Under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, Japan secured significant territorial and financial gains, including Taiwan, the Liaodong Peninsula, and a large silver indemnity. However, its victory was undercut by the "Triple Intervention" of Russia, France, and Germany, which forced Japan to return Liaodong. This humiliation taught Japan two key lessons: the need for strong alliances and the reality that power dictates territorial control. Russia, exploiting Japan’s retreat, soon occupied Port Arthur, further inflaming tensions.
Russia’s continued expansion in East Asia, particularly its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway and incursions into Manchuria, posed a direct threat to Japan. Japan attempted diplomatic negotiations, proposing a Korea-for-Manchuria agreement, but Russia refused. With its concerns unmet, Japan sought allies, securing the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902, which ensured British support if Japan faced multiple adversaries.
In 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on Port Arthur without a formal declaration of war, crippling the Russian navy. Over the next year, Japan secured key victories in Korea, Manchuria, and at sea, culminating in the decisive Battle of Tsushima, where Japan destroyed the Russian Baltic Fleet. These successes led to the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), mediated by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt. Japan gained leases in southern Manchuria, recognition of its "paramount interests" in Korea, and half of Sakhalin Island. In gratitude, Japan later gifted cherry blossom trees to Washington, D.C.
Japan’s victory against Russia marked its emergence as a "Great Power." It had demonstrated that an Asian nation could defeat a major European empire, reshaping global perceptions. Japan solidified its control over Korea, aggressively assimilating its people by imposing Japanese customs, names, and governance, laying the foundation for its later imperial ambitions.
While Japan ascended to Great Power status through rapid modernization and strategic diplomacy, China experienced fragmentation and decline. The Qing Dynasty’s inability to implement effective self-strengthening reforms and its repeated defeats in war led to internal strife and eventual collapse. In contrast, Japan’s willingness to embrace change under the Meiji Restoration allowed it to compete with the West on equal footing. By mastering the "Great Power Game," Japan not only secured its sovereignty but also began its rise as an imperial force in East Asia, setting the stage for its 20th-century ambitions.